A to Z of Canine Health Problems

Acid reflux

Under normal circumstances the digestive fluid in the stomach (a mix of enzymes and acid) is prevented from getting into the oesophagus. If it occurs, it is called gastroesophageal or acid reflux. It is more common than generally thought and is harmful when it erodes the lining of the oesophagus, causing inflammation and ulcers.

The causes are a damaged or weak sphincter muscle in the muscular tube that separates the gullet and stomach but can also be a side effect of long-term medication. The common signs and symptoms include:

burping
gagging
bad, sour breath
loss of appetite
vomiting
evidence of pain during or after eating
excessive salivation or drooling

Allergies

Fleas

Caused by substances in flea saliva when they bite into the skin to suck blood; in an advanced form it leads to Flea Allergy Dermatitis. Signs are raised, little red specks on the skin. The fleas and their eggs can also be seen, although in longhaired dogs that is often difficult. Other traces are tiny brown crumbs on the animal’s skin, usually called flea dirt. These are in fact bits of dried blood- not faeces, as is often thought.

Symptoms:

itchiness
scratching
biting at areas the dog can get to, e.g. legs, flanks, etc.
hair loss
reddened areas of skin
damaged skin
in extreme cases pale gums and other mucous membranes due to severe blood loss

For every mature flea there are many immature ones and eggs on the animal but even more so in the environment, creating a source for maintaining the infestation. Treatment depends on the severity of any secondary condition, especially dermatitis, but will include a pesticide to be used on the dog and another one to eradicate the environmental burden (on bedding, carpets, coats, etc.)

Food

Food allergies are quite common in dogs and must not be confused with food intolerances. They emerge when the immune system perceives a component to be a foreign body that needs to be attacked, most often a protein. The result is an inflammatory process that can affect various parts of the body, not just the digestive tract.

Symptoms include:

itchiness
dermatitis
diarrhoea
ear inflammation
flatulence
weight loss

There seems to be a general genetic predisposition, but it is now thought that external factors such as environmental ones or antibiotics given as a puppy might also play a role.

The only way to establish the cause is an exclusion diet- this means feeding a single protein on a trial and error basis until the source of the allergy is found. Adding to the complexity in diagnosing and treating the condition is the fact that dogs are almost invariably allergic to more than one substance.

Skin

Apart from other allergies or disease that can create symptoms in the skin, there are two recognised skin allergies:

Atopic dermatitis (atopy)

This is caused by environmental allergens that are inhaled or ingested, such as pollen, dust mites, mould, and others. Symptoms are generalised itching, reddened and thickened skin, secondary bacterial infections, greasy skin (seborrhoea), and possibly conjunctivitis. The condition is often progressive and relapsing. Removal or avoidance of the allergen/s is normally impossible.

Treatment consists of corticosteroids and antibiotics if necessary. Some evidence indicates that diets rich in essential fatty acids might be helpful, as well as desensitisation.

Contact dermatitis

This is an allergic reaction to irritants with which the skin comes in contact. These principally include plants and chemicals, and the differentiation from atopy is sometimes blurred. Atopy can also increase the likelihood of contact dermatitis because of hair loss and inflammation making the skin more susceptible. It is most often found in hairless or sparsely haired areas of skin and localised to where contact was made and the substance reached the skin.

Treatment consists of corticosteroids, removal of the irritant (using hypoallergenic shampoos or other specialist solutions), and where possible creating barriers (socks, fabric, bandages) and avoidance.

Anal gland / anal sac problems

Anal sacs are located on either side of the anus. They are filled with a putrid substance produced by the glands, with which dogs identify each other and mark their territory. Normally these sacs are emptied when the dog defecates but, if that does not happen, they become impacted.

Symptoms are:

scooting
licking or biting their rear end
abscesses
constipation or pain when toileting/sitting

If the glands are only impacted the fluid can be squeezed out but, in case of infection the dog will quite often have to undergo a procedure under anaesthesia to clean out the impaction, remove dead tissue, and disinfect the area. Occasionally more invasive surgery is required. The latter will be followed up by antibiotics and possible anti-inflammatory medication.

To prevent this from happening it is advisable to feed a high-quality food with an appropriate amount of fibre together with regular exercise.

Arthritis

Arthritis is a term covering diseases that affect the joints in the body; from jaw and spine to the limbs. It may be a single joint (monoarthritis) or several (please see polyarthritis).

Primary idiopathic osteoarthritis without a known origin is extremely rare in dogs. It is usually caused by other skeletal problems, such as hip dysplasia, elbow dysplasia, kneecap instability, or cruciate ligament rupture. These initiate processes that cause progressive deterioration of the cartilage within the joints. A different cause can be bacteria that reach joints and start an infection. There is also a form that is connected to a reaction from the immune system.

The symptoms depend to a degree on the specific cause but include reduced exercise tolerance, pain (when walking, eating, getting up, etc.), generally compromised wellbeing and swollen joints.

Treatment depends also on the type and its origin. Drugs include non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medication (NSAIDs), corticosteroids (if involvement of the immune system is established) and antibiotics. In case of excessive wear (for example in the hips) surgery might be indicated.

Obesity is a major contributing factor in the development and question of severity of the disease.

Autoimmune haemolytic anaemia

This is an accelerated destruction of red blood cells due to the dog’s own immune system attacking them. Causes are antigens in the blood stream, certain drugs and infectious organisms.

Symptoms include general weakness, exercise intolerance, inappetence, vomiting, diarrhoea, red urine, quickened breathing, pale mucous membranes (e.g. gums), and fever.

Treatment almost invariably consist of hospitalisation, intravenous fluids, blood transfusion, corticosteroids, other immune-suppressive drugs, prevention of blood clots, antibiotics (in case of infection), and surgery- which in extreme cases may involve removal of the spleen.

Bladder stones (urolithiasis)

This is distinguished by the type of stone, i.e. what it consists of. Causes can be infections, hormonal imbalances, diet, insufficient water intake, genetic predisposition, or medication.

Symptoms are influenced by the location of the stones (kidneys, ureter, bladder, urethra). They include painful urinating, unsuccessful attempt to urinate, fatigue, vomiting, general depression, blood in urine, and loss of appetite.

Treatment depends on the type of stone and location, and options consist of antibiotics (if the underlying cause is an infection), special diets, and/or surgical removal.

Bloat

Also known as GDV, volvulus, bloat, gastric torsion, twisted stomach or stomach torsion. It is invariably a highly acute and life-threatening situation. Time is the most critical factor and, when dealt with swiftly and correctly, the condition has a high success and survival rate (> 80%). The causes are not entirely clear.

Symptoms are:

breathing: accelerated and possibly laboured
heart rate: raised and possibly arrhythmic
pale mucous membranes
unproductive retching
distended and painful abdomen
potentially signs of stress and collapse

The procedure of choice is gastropexy whereby the stomach is sewn to the abdominal wall, after repositioning, to physically prevent future episodes of volvulus. Postoperative measures include pain killers and continued stabilising IV fluids.

Statistically, large and giant breeds are overrepresented, above all Great Danes, German Shepherds, Standard Poodles, and Irish Setters. A common factor is a particularly deep chest in relation to its width.

Prevention is key.

Recommendations are:

feed frequent small meals during the day (3 – 4)
feed in a quiet environment
rest the dog one hour before and two hours after meals (i.e. no exercise)
always be prepared for the signs, especially if you live with a dog from a large or giant breed.

Bronchitis

Bronchitis is officially characterised by a cough that is chronic (lasting more than two months) and has no other diagnosable cause (e.g. congestive heart failure, infection or cancer). The underlying cause is a persistent inflammation of the airways although a specific reason rarely can be established. Underlying causes can be viral, bacterial, inhaled irritants and foreign bodies, parasites, or allergens.

Symptoms include hoarse coughing, exercise intolerance (although most patients are otherwise bright), wheezy breathing, and touch-sensitive trachea.

Treatment normally consists of corticosteroids (anti-inflammatory), bronchodilators (easing of breathing), antibiotics (if an infection is suspected or has been proved), antitussives (cough suppressant). It must be understood that chronic bronchitis is incurable, and the long-term strategy relies upon managing the condition and improving the dog’s quality of life.

Bursitis

Bursae are fluid-filled sacs that reduce friction between moving parts of the body (ligaments, tendons, muscles and bones) or cushion pressure over parts of the body, especially joints. Bursitis, or inflammation of such a bursa, originates in exposure to over-use (e.g. in greyhounds due to extreme acceleration and running), infection or continued pressure (e.g. heavy dogs lying on a hard surface).

Symptoms are swellings over joints, reluctance to lie on a particular side, lameness, warm joints, and thickened skin over these areas. Treatment includes anti-inflammatory drugs (especially NSAIDs and corticosteroids), antibiotics in case of infection, reduction of pressure (restricting exercise and /or letting the dog rest on a soft surface), and possibly surgery (removal of the bursa in question).

Cancer

Cancer is a term with which we are all familiar, but it is a poorly understood area of medicine. The NHS website describes cancer as “a condition where cells in a specific part of the body grow and reproduce uncontrollably. The cancerous cells can invade and destroy surrounding healthy tissue, including organs. Cancer sometimes begins in one part of the body before spreading to other areas. This process is known as metastasis.”

As in humans, cancer is widespread in dogs. In all its forms it can strike at almost any age but, with advancing years, the likelihood increases, and all organ systems might be affected. It has become more common because we now look after our dogs better than ever before, nutrition and health care have improved enormously, and breed standards are being reviewed and amended. Our much-loved companions simply live longer but unfortunately, that allows damaging influences (e.g. UV rays, chemicals or genetic faults) enough time to cause changes, which ultimately drives up the number of cancer cases seen today.

Prevention is generally difficult because the roots of most cancers are still unknown. On the other hand, research to develop new therapeutics, such as vaccines, is ongoing with dedicated cancer centres concentrating on research and therapy. Much can now be done that the veterinary profession and dog owners could only dream of a couple of decades ago.

Symptoms, especially in the early stages, are often obscure or even absent. Anything unusual, for example a wound that doesn’t heal, lameness or bleeding without apparent reason, as well as lumps and bumps (that are most often harmless) should be brought to the attention of a vet.

Therapies include surgery (e.g. in mammary gland tumours), radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and even bone marrow transplants. Specialists now speak of survival rates of over 60% and survival times in the range of years rather than weeks or months, if the cancer is diagnosed and treatment started early enough.

Canine infectious tracheobronchitis

Please see Kennel cough.

Cataracts

Much like the lenses in cameras, binoculars or telescopes, the lens in the eye helps to gather light and focus it. Cataracts mean that this lens becomes increasingly opaque, letting through less light and making focussing properly progressively challenging. The most common causes are advancing age, infections and/or inflammations of the eye (especially when they turn chronic), trauma (with subsequent infection / inflammation), and Diabetes Mellitus. There is also evidence of genetic predisposition. In its advanced stage it causes blindness.

The symptoms are frequently seen by dog owners since the cloudiness in the eye is easy to spot.

Treatment consists primarily of surgery and, as in humans, the most common procedure is to remove the cloudy core of the lens. This restores much of the vision, and lenses can also be replaced by artificial ones. Recovery rates are very good, and once removed the cataract cannot return.

As a supportive measure, anti-inflammatory eye drops, atropine and/or oral non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) might be given.

Cherry eye

Dogs have something which is often called the third eyelid in the median corner of their eyes. It is there for additional protection and can slide across the eye. It is made of cartilage and has a tear gland for lubrication. If that gland protrudes, it looks red and swollen, a bit like a small cherry, hence the name.

What are the risks? There are differing opinions whether it is painful or not but, if it is left untreated, it will become so because it is more than likely to cause follow-on problems, such as Dry eye.

Symptoms are the protruding red mass, possibly conjunctivitis, swollen tissue, and involuntary contraction of the muscles around the eye (blepharospasm). Should secondary problems (such as an eye infection) occur there can be pus, excessive or lacking tear production, further swelling, blinking, etc.

Therapy usually involves surgery. While the tear gland can be removed, this is generally not advised as it will then almost certainly cause additional problems, especially Dry eye. The preferred approach is to reposition the gland, so it is in its correct place again and supportive measures such as eye drops / gels (either anti-inflammatory or antibacterial), are often used.

There is, however, a risk that the condition will recur and require further surgery. Also, if it occurs in one eye, it will probably happen on the other side as well.

Cherry eye is an inherited condition, and it is generally advised not to breed from dogs that have suffered from it.

Chocolate poisoning

All chocolate is potentially harmful for dogs and, in some cases, may prove fatal.

If you suspect that your dog has eaten chocolate, it is always advisable to inform your vet. You should be ready to describe the situation and the type and amount of chocolate believed to have been consumed. Retaining the wrapper, if possible, may be helpful.

The toxic effect of chocolate in dogs stems from two chemicals present in cocoa powder and solids; theobromine and caffeine, both of which affect the heart, the central nervous system, and the digestive tract.

Whether a dog becomes ill or not after consuming chocolate depends on several factors. These are size and weight, age, pre-existing illnesses and the type and amount of chocolate eaten.

The toxicity of chocolate increases from milk chocolate which contains a lower concentration of cocoa solids through to dark baking varieties, many of which are advertised as containing a very high percentage (>85%) of cacao or cocoa solids. White chocolate does not contain cocoa powder but is not entirely safe either due to its high fat and sugar content, which can cause pancreatitis. As a rule of thumb, the darker the chocolate and the higher the quality, the more cocoa it will contain, the higher the levels of theobromine and caffeine and, as a result, the more dangerous to dogs it will be.

There is a clear distinction between chocolate that is sold for human consumption and that which is labelled as being safe for dogs and, in reality, these ‘chocolate’ treats are not really chocolate at all but made with a chocolate substitute – often made from peanut butter, crunchy bacon bits, cheese and carob. When buying online, and to be absolutely safe, it is always better to avoid feeding anything described as chocolate unless you are confident in the source of the product

See Common plants, foods and other items that are poisonous to dogs.

Congestive heart failure

This is not a disease but is instead a syndrome (i.e. a group of symptoms) and is only an indication of the heart’s progressive inability to provide the body with oxygen and nutrients, and there can be several underlying reasons. When the body notices these imbalances it will launch compensatory actions, but these will only help for a while and, over the long term, may trigger the development of further problems.

One of the principal events in CHF is the build-up of fluids, especially around the heart and in the lungs. That is due to the discrepancies of pressures within the system and the backing up of blood on one side, because the other is not capable of keeping up normal flow rates.

Symptoms include shortness of breath, rapid breathing, coughing, reduced exercise tolerance, general weakness, fluid retention / oedema, arrhythmia.

Treatments target the underlying cause if it can be identified and the main supportive aim is to lighten the load on the circulatory system and normalise blood supply to the body, and therefore deliver oxygen, as far as possible. As it is usually incurable, the purpose of treatment is to increase quality of life and survival time, which can very good with the right treatment. Drugs may include digoxin, ACE inhibitors, diuretics (to reduce retained fluids), and specialised diets.

Conjunctivitis

This describes an inflammation of the mucous membrane that lines the area around the eyeball.

The causes are varied:

Physical
- ectropion
- entropion
- reduced tear production
- trauma
Infectious
- bacteria
- viruses
- fungi
Environmental
- foreign bodies
- irritants
- wind

Symptoms are reddened and swollen conjunctiva and possibly the tissue around the eye, discharge (pus or cloudy/watery), rubbing and blepharospasm (involuntary closing of the eye lids). If left untreated, other follow-on problems such as corneal ulcers, might ensue.

Treatment depends on the identified or suspected underlying cause. In case of entropion/ectropion it is most often corrective surgery. Otherwise remedies include anti-bacterial or anti-fungal topical medication and/or anti-inflammatory topical medication.

Corneal Ulcer

The cornea is the clear frontal part of the eyeball. It can become damaged and ulcerated but the possible causes are many and varied. They range from trauma to infections, reduced tear production (Dry Eye) to entropion/ectropion.

Symptoms are cloudy spots on the frontal part of the eye, blinking (blepharospasm), discharge, reddish and congested conjunctiva.

The treatment consists mainly of the removal of the underlying cause, for example removal of a foreign body, surgical correction of a fault (ectropion/entropion) or antibiotic drops in case of bacterial infection. Especially, in cases where a deep ulceration and possibly a penetration of the cornea may be seen, the veterinary surgeon might choose to cover the eye for a period with a surgically fixed third eye lid or a flap of conjunctiva to facilitate healing.

Cushing’s disease

(Hyperadrenocorticism)

The adrenal glands are an important part of the finely-tuned hormonal system. In this condition they produce an excess of corticosteroids. The underlying causes are usually tumours either in the adrenal glands or in the pituitary gland, although another cause can be overdosing of corticosteroid medication.

Most body systems are affected. The severity of symptoms varies widely and can include:

excessive drinking and urinating
excessive appetite
weight gain
distended abdomen
panting
enlarged liver
hair loss
thin skin
muscle wasting and weakness
lethargy

In mild cases treatment might be deferred. Severe cases might require initial hospitalisation to aid the stabilisation of the patient. Medication centres on drugs that help to inhibit directly or indirectly the production of corticosteroids. It is then a life-long necessity. Surgery might be an option, so is radiotherapy, depending on the individual case.

This is an inflammatory and possible infectious condition of the bladder. It can be caused mainly by infection (ascending from the urethra) or bladder stones, more rarely by trauma or neoplasia.

In the very beginning it is often without obvious signs. Those developing over time are frequent urination, pain when urinating (dysuria), possibly traces of blood in urine, and incontinence (especially in female and older dogs).

Depending on the indicators present, examination might include x-rays or ultrasound but certainly a urine test. Based on the results treatments range from antibiotics via specialist diets to surgical removal of an obstruction.

Diarrhoea

Loose stools are not a disease in themselves but are an indicator of one or more underlying causes. These can range from something harmless, such as the remains of a dead animal the dog might have eaten while out on a walk, to serious systemic illnesses that require investigation and treatment as soon as possible.

Causes include:

systemic illness, e.g. Addison’s Disease or pancreatitis
parasites or infectious agents, e.g. Salmonella or Giardia
allergic reactions (e.g. food intolerances)
toxins

Diagnosis will depend on whether diarrhoea is acute or chronic. If it happens just once or twice in 24 hours then disappears, and the animal is happy and does not show any other signs of health issues (e.g. vomiting, depression, weakness), it was probably harmless and can be remedied with a light diet (e.g. white fish and rice).

However, any diarrhoea that

is prolonged
does not respond to generic measures such as a light diet for a couple of days
shows traces of blood
is black
and/or is accompanied by other obvious symptoms, especially vomiting and pain

must be the trigger for seeking a veterinary consultation.

Continued diarrhoea leads to dehydration, weight loss, and possibly further serious complications.

Diabetes

Diabetes mellitus is relatively common in dogs. Its origins are complex and not all fully understood. While it can affect them at any age, it occurs predominantly in those that are seven years and older. Breeds that seem to be particularly affected include:

Australian terrier
Bichon Frisé
Border terrier
Cairn terrier
Dachshund
Fox terrier
Miniature and Toy Poodle
Pug
Samoyed
Siberian husky
Springer spaniel
Tibetan terrier
Yorkshire terrier

The main symptoms of the disease are:

Increased thirst – more frequently and larger amounts than normal
- More frequent urinating and possibly incontinence
Increased hunger
- Yet the dog loses weight
Dizziness, disorientation, confusion, general tiredness and weakness
Breath smelling of ketones (like nail varnish remover)

The disease hinges on the hormone insulin, produced in the pancreas, which facilitates the movement of glucose -the body’s main source of energy- from the bloodstream into the cells. In dogs the overwhelming majority of cases belong to a group that is, in humans, categorised as Type I diabetes. Here no insulin is produced at all.

While not curable the condition can be managed very well, and the animal can live a full and active life. As insulin is vital and the body produces none, it has to be provided in the form of injections, normally twice daily after meals. Equally, regular blood and/or urine tests must be performed. They are easy to do and are indispensable for making sure the therapy is working, and the dog’s system is in a reasonable balance, getting as much energy as it needs.

If this is not done, the glucose remaining in the blood causes a dangerous, potentially life-threatening condition called ketoacidosis and the body might shut down because of a severe lack of energy.

Distemper

(also called Hard Pad Disease)

This is a potentially fatal viral infection. While often symptomless in the initial acute stage, the virus spreads very quickly to all lymphatic and nervous tissue throughout the body.

The first sign is fever, although the initial peak might go unnoticed. As the infection progresses, fever is frequently combined with discharge from eyes and nose (often the place of entry), coughing, sneezing, general listlessness, and loss of appetite. In later stages the gastrointestinal tract will develop symptoms with vomiting and/or diarrhoea. The central nervous system (CNS) will often be affected, as well as peripheral nervous tissue. The exact effects depend on the specific virus strain. Severe forms include seizures, ataxia, hysteria, and stupor. CNS signs can persist and/or recur for a while, even if a dog survives. Complicating matters can be secondary bacterial infections, due to the compromised immune system. The overproduction of keratin on the paws that gives the disease its colloquial name is relatively rare.

Treatment will consist of antibiotics and anti-convulsives (if CNS symptoms are present). The best course of action is prevention by vaccination.

Dry eye

(also known as Keratoconjunctivitis sicca)

This is a condition in which an insufficient quantity of tears leads to dryness of the eye and subsequently, due to reduced lubrication, a rubbing irritation of the cornea and the surrounding tissue. Symptoms include involuntary closing of the eyelids (blepharospasm), red and swollen conjunctiva, prominent third eyelid, discharge, and changes in the cornea (from almost imperceptible cloudiness to ulcers). At an advanced stage it can lead to blindness.

The causes are varied and numerous. There is a breed predilection, with Yorkshire terriers being affected particularly but also Cocker spaniels, Bulldogs, West Highland White terriers, Lhasa Apso, and Shi Tzus showing a higher than normal incidence.

They include other complaints, such as chronic conjunctivitis, some immunological conditions and systemic disease (e.g. distemper). Furthermore, some drugs and treatments, used with concomitant conditions, have been found to exacerbate it. They include, occasionally, anaesthesia, as well as chemo- or radiotherapy.

Treatment will focus on the replacement of tears or stimulation of tear production with appropriate drops or gels. In addition, any accompanying problems will need to be addressed, above all secondary infections with antibiotic applications and inflammation with corticosteroids. However, the use of these will be based not only on the presentation of symptoms but the risks associated with side-effects. In particular, corticosteroids will be contraindicated in case of ulceration.

The owner must recognise that this might be a life-long complaint.

Ear haematoma

(also known as Aural Haematoma)

Ears are well supplied with blood, but the outer vessels run just under the skin and over the cartilage with, consequently, very little cushioning. Trauma can easily break them so that blood seeps into that tight space and creates a haematoma.

In most cases there is a separate reason, particularly infections or infestations of the ear. When dogs shake their head or scratch due to the irritation it can very easily damage one or more vessel. The ear then becomes swollen, hot and painful, which in turn causes the animal to shake even more.

Treatment often requires surgery to drain away the blood and close the gap between skin and cartilage to prevent further leakage. However, it will be important to identify the initial cause and treat that in addition. Medication will then include anti-inflammatory medication, possibly antibiotics or antibacterial topical preparations (in cases of infection), anti-fungal or antiparasitic medication.

The prognosis is excellent but left untreated the condition will cause further damage and subsequent disfigurement of the ear.

Ear infection

Ear infections are actually part of the wider group of inflammatory and/or infectious skin problems. Please see Eczema.

Ectropion

When the margin of an eyelid (usually the lower one) is turned outwards it is called an ectropion (see also Entropion). This exposes the conjunctiva, the mucous membrane lining the area around the eyeball, to environmental influences and is quite obvious due to the red tissue being visible. It is mostly inherited through the physical facial conformation of certain breeds, particularly, retrievers, hounds, St. Bernards, Mastiffs, Shar Pei, and bloodhounds.

Sometimes very tired dogs can show it, but it is then intermittent and will simply disappear again after a short while and a good rest. Another rare origin is the aftermath of trauma around the eye or in dogs with hypothyroidism.

In mild cases it is often sufficient to work supportively in terms of drops or gels to ward off the drying out of the conjunctiva. If it is more advanced, surgery will be indicated to turn the eyelid back inwards, because the drying out and heightened risk of foreign bodies make it likely that more serious problems, such as corneal ulcers, will follow.

Eczema

(Dermatitis)

This term covers skin-inflammation with a very wide range of possible causes. These include:

parasites
infections
- bacterial
- fungal
allergies
- parasites
- environmental irritants
- chemicals
- food
autoimmune disease
trauma

The skin will be reddened and thickened. Depending on the cause there might be hair loss, pus, crusts, itchiness, pain, and/or scaling. Similarly, the treatment will depend entirely on the origin of the problem. Therefore, the following should be considered:

medicinal shampoos
antiparasitic preparations
antibiotics
anti-inflammatory drugs and topical applications
fungicides
specialist diets

Entropion

In an entropion the lower margin of the eyelid is turned inwards. This leads to irritation due to rubbing eye lashes and/or hair. Continued physical irritation can lead to damage to the frontal part of the eye, especially corneal ulcers. Left untreated that can lead to loss of sight.

Symptoms can be mild and easily overlooked in the beginning. Later keratitis, swelling of the tissue surrounding the eye, discharge (pus or clear), and damage to the cornea will develop, either individually or in various combinations.

Most cases are attributed to breed conformation, especially in those with very short heads and/or excessive facial skin, such as bloodhounds, Shar Pei, Chow Chow, etc.). Other causes include trauma to the area around the eye, chronic infections of the eye, inward growing hairs or eye lashes, lacerations, foreign bodies or irritants – any condition that causes swelling and pushes the edge of the eyelid inwards.

Treatments include lubricating eye preparations, antibacterial and anti-inflammatory drops or gels. In more advanced cases, surgical intervention might help by turning the eye lid outwards with stitches. In older dogs and with the risk of permanency (with all its subsequent problems) it can be necessary to remove skin from below or to the side of the eye to correct the ailment.

Epilepsy

Please see Seizures.

Gastritis

This inflammation of the stomach has a wide range of possible causes, many of them direct irritants that affect the stomach lining. Recognising the condition is often slow leading to the condition entering a chronic stage. The origin may be eating contaminated foodstuff, exposure to chemicals/poisons, long-term medication (especially NSAIDs), foreign bodies, infections, auto-immune responses seemingly unrelated to the gastro-intestinal tract, infections, hyperacidity, and secondary to other systemic diseases, such as distemper or kidney disease.

In addition to the stomach, other parts of the body might be involved, particularly the respiratory tract and the oesophagus, where both can become irritated by acid reflux or regurgitated/vomited stomach contents.

The main signs are vomiting (sometimes intermittent), listlessness, possible loss of appetite (but not necessarily), possibly diarrhoea (esp. if related to more generalised gastro-intestinal disease) and weight loss. One of the most dangerous consequences is dehydration. If that is the case, hospitalisation to correct the imbalance might then be necessary. Otherwise medication will include antiemetics to stop the vomiting, light diet, removal/avoidance of the original cause, antibiotics (where appropriate), and possibly corticosteroids.

Gingivitis

Gingivitis means inflammation of the gums and is the first stage of periodontal disease. It is important to realise that gingivitis is reversible as removal of the plaque, a hardened layer mainly of bacteria and food residue, can completely eliminate it. Gingivitis might cause some discomfort but, if so, dogs do not usually show it. Persistent inflammation can cause neoplasia.

If left unattended, it may advance to more substantial periodontal conditions. That is when it becomes truly problematic and irreversible. In the process of the development of the disease the entire structure around the tooth can become weakened due to destruction of the periodontal ligament and the surrounding bone. Teeth become loose and may fall out or have to be extracted.

Signs are:

initially

reddened and swollen gums
halitosis

later

ulceration of the gums and oral mucosa
excessive salivation
not wanting to be touched around the mouth
- although that is common in most dogs anyway, of course
difficulty picking up food
dropping food or other articles.
refusal to chew
blood from the mouth
with advanced destruction and infection
- nasal discharge
- sneezing

The best course of action is prevention by regular tooth cleaning.

Glaucoma

Just behind the cornea in the frontal part of the eye, is a small chamber that is filled with a liquid. That liquid is being produced constantly and, therefore, needs functional drainage. If the outflow is reduced or completely blocked, the pressure inside the eye rises, which damages the optical nerve and the retina, the receptive tissue at the back of the eyeball.

The cause can be primary, i.e. the channels are closed because of a genetic predisposition (especially arctic breeds, like Samoyed, Chow Chow, Norwegian elkhounds and Siberian huskies but also some spaniels, Maltese, and others), or secondary to other eye diseases.

Symptoms include blepharospasm (blinking, closing of eye lids), apparent pain, and the sinking of the eyeball towards the back. If the underlying cause is another eye condition, further signs will depend on the nature of that. In dogs in which the condition is primary, i.e. genetic, the eventual effect on both eyes must be considered, even if at that stage only one seems to be diseased.

Any treatment has the main aim of lowering the pressure inside the eye as quickly as possible and, in highly acute cases, it might be necessary to hospitalise the animal to guarantee effective medication. Drugs will consist of eye preparations of varying modes of action. If the condition is the result of another eye disorder, that will have to be treated separately. The majority will require lifelong treatment. Additional surgery will present a better chance of saving / restoring sight to a certain level. With reliance on medication only, most dogs will become blind over time.

Grape toxicity

Not every dog will fall ill after having eaten grapes and some will be fatally poisoned by only a small amount, while others will only show mild symptoms after a substantial quantity.

Because the outcome is not predictable and it varies from dog to dog, the default position is not to let dogs eat grapes or raisins under any circumstances (see also chocolate poisoning).

If your dog has eaten either grapes, raisins or chocolate, treat it as an emergency and consult a veterinary surgeon immediately.

The exact mechanism and/or ingredient/s that cause the condition still have not been found. The main body system affected is the kidneys. Usually vomiting occurs within 24 hours of ingestion. Other possible symptoms are diarrhoea, listlessness, salivating, inappetence, and abdominal pain. In many cases the kidney function is reduced or even shut down completely, so very little or no urine is produced. This can lead to seizures, coma, and ultimately death. In some advanced cases euthanasia might be the only option due to the irreparable damage to the kidneys.

If possible, one of the first steps is to clean the stomach by making the dog vomit. Should that not be possible or as an additional safety measure, absorbent materials -such as activated charcoal- can be given. The majority will require hospitalisation for monitoring and administering IV fluids to flush out the poison, to correct imbalances in the blood due to the compromised kidney function, and to help urine production. Specialists might be able to clean the blood by dialysis. Some survivors will have persistent kidney damage and will need lifelong treatment.

Herpes virus infection

This is an infection with the Canine Herpes Virus (CHV) that is not transferrable to humans or other species and only found in canids (dogs, coyotes, and wolves). Its distribution is global, but outbreaks are rare. Most adults are immune, although that makes them potentially symptomless sources of the agent. The virus is localised and sits in the genital tract and/or the nose of both female and male animals.

The main disease occurs in pups, and the infection begins during late pregnancy or shortly after birth when, due to their incomplete immune system, they are most susceptible. Unfortunately, the condition is often fatal. Death can occur suddenly without warning on the first day after birth or increasingly with the symptoms described below up to the age of four weeks.

Signs are breathing difficulties, discharge from eyes and nose, diarrhoea, listlessness and inappetence, and encephalitis. Some patients survive, if they only show mild symptoms, but they often develop long-term problems in the aftermath, such as blindness, encephalopathy, deafness, and/or kidney failure. The infection can also lead to stillborn pups. Despite this, infected bitches do often produce unaffected litters.

In symptomless adults, immunosuppressive diseases or drugs, and stress can cause an outbreak of a latent viral burden later in life. It commonly affects the eyes with conjunctivitis and/or keratitis.

Attempts to treat affected puppies with antiviral drugs have been reported to be ineffective. The best way to counteract the disease is prevention. For this, pregnant females should be isolated from other adult dogs until three to four weeks after giving birth. There is also a vaccine available, that is given to pregnant bitches. A veterinary surgeon can advise whether the vaccine is licensed in your country.

Hip dysplasia

Hip dysplasia is a developmental disease arising in the very young puppy.

Studies have shown that there is a genetic link that does not affect the bones, but does affect the connective tissue (i.e. ligaments, etc.), cartilage in the joint and the surrounding muscles. The skeleton of the puppy grows faster than the muscle mass and, for the hip joint, that means there is not enough encasing strength to hold it together properly with resulting decreased stability within the structure. Consequences can be further malformation, abnormal wear, inflammation and osteoarthritis.

It affects most medium to large breeds and even a few smaller ones, e.g. some spaniels and bulldogs. It occurs usually in both sides and is the most common cause of osteoarthritis of the hip joint in the dog.

There are two groups of patients with hip dysplasia: the very young (between 4 and 11 months old) and the mature dog (from about 15 months onwards). The symptoms are more or less the same in both groups:

stiffness in the rear quarter
hind limb lameness (sometimes described as ‘bunny hopping’)
possibly unstable hind legs (= wobbly)
stiff and steep gate
exercise intolerance
expressions of pain

The diagnosis will rest on the history, physical examination and x-ray imaging.

Depending on age and severity of physical changes, treatment would initially use drug treatment and, in more advanced cases, surgery.

Regardless of age and surgical procedure, additional supportive treatments that have shown to be beneficial are physiotherapy, hydrotherapy and glucosamine.

Hookworms

These are little worms that live as adult stages in the small intestines of dogs. Unlike many other types of worms that exist on nutrients in the bowel contents, hookworms latch onto the wall of the intestine and suck blood. On rare occasions larvae can reach the lungs and cause inflammation there before they migrate to the intestines.

Adult dogs frequently show no or only mild symptoms, such as diarrhoea and loss of condition. Pups are at a higher risk of serious consequences as they can easily develop anaemia due to the considerable blood loss, with dark stools, inappetence, failure to thrive, diarrhoea or constipation, possibly cough (if larvae have invaded the lungs), or even death.

For pups the two main routes of infection are pre-delivery through the placenta or with the milk after birth. Young and adult dogs can also contract the infestation from the soil or, unique among worms in dogs, by treading on larvae that then borrow through the skin, which leaves tiny itchy lesions.

Treatment is with potent wormers that will eliminate the parasite burden. Acute cases will often have to be hospitalised in order to give supportive care in form of IV fluids, blood transfusions and, where necessary oxygen. The prognosis in acute cases is guarded and sudden death can occur at any time, even with treatment.

See also Roundworms, Tapeworms, and Whipworms.

Hypothyroidism

The condition is characterised by a reduced production of hormones in the thyroid gland, with a resulting generalised lower metabolism. This is due to a destruction of the productive tissue and, in dogs, two forms are commonly found. One is immune-mediated and has an inflammatory component, the other hasn’t. Another form, where the hypothyroidism is secondary to a problem in the pituitary gland, is very rare and inherited, genetic forms have also been reported but are equally atypical. Larger breeds seem to be more likely to develop the disease.

Symptoms that are usually seen, although not necessarily all together, include:

lethargy
weight gain
dull coat
greasy coat (seborrhoea)
pyoderma (bacterial infection of the skin)
weakness
slow heartbeat

The symptoms together with a blood test will aid diagnosis and, once diagnosed, the condition is easily managed with hormone supplements. It will then necessitate lifelong medication and occasional check-ups.

Incontinence (urinary)

This means the loss of voluntary control over the bladder. Those most commonly affected are older, neutered females of medium to large breeds although not exclusively, as neutered males, and under certain circumstances any other dog, can be affected. Neutering, however, does increase the likelihood of incontinence, especially in large and giant breeds.

There is a number of underlying causes that can be responsible for the development of the condition:

neurological
the bladder receives its main nervous supply from strands that descend from or through the pelvis and from the lower spine. Should that supply be disrupted, for example, as a by-product of fractures (road traffic accidents, falls, etc.), prolapsed discs, or cancer in that area, there are two major mechanisms that can result in urinary incontinence. One is the loss of nervous control over the sphincter, i.e. the muscle the operates the exit of the bladder. The other is the loss of control over the extent to which the bladder is being filled. This can lead to an overfilling and, consequently, an over-spilling of urine.
neurological
- neurological causes such as trauma and neoplasia can be considered, and dogs do suffer from senility. As part of ageing, neurological degeneration can turn a previously perfectly housetrained dog into an incontinent one.
behavioural
- due to stress dogs can become incontinent. Of course, the actual triggers are numerous and might sometimes be impossible to pinpoint exactly but could include house move, new additional dog, or changed behaviour among the other members of the group. These are events or circumstances that change the dynamic within the pack, i.e. all the members of the household, which present a challenge to a dog. Some cope easier with this than others. A thorough physical examination is paramount, even if behavioural issues are suspected. However, psychological elements should never be discounted lightly. A fully trained behaviourist can be found through their professional body (APDT) or veterinary surgeons might sometimes be able to recommend someone to become part of the diagnostic and therapeutic process.
physical
- many factors can affect the bladder and its associated structures. These can be direct (bladder cancer, prostate problems, neurological damage, infection, inflammation, etc.) or indirect, especially in cases of kidney malfunction (developmental problems, infection, inflammation, etc.).
- more exotic reasons include anatomic features, e.g. malformed urethras or an abnormally developed/positioned bladder.

Occasionally, one might be faced with a combination of different contributing sources.

The main initial diagnostic aids will be x-rays and/or ultrasound examination, but they can be complemented by various other tests, such as blood chemistry or urine analysis.

Treatment depends entirely on the identified cause, and can, therefore, range from surgery via medication to behavioural adjustment and, if medical therapy has been chosen, regular follow-up consultations will be necessary. The nature of some of the drugs used, which can include hormones, necessitates regular assessment.

Influenza

Canine influenza virus is a relatively recent discovery. There are two strains; one, identified in 2004, is genetically related to the equine influenza virus, and the other, identified in 2007, is related to an influenza virus in birds (Avian flu). As it seems to have crossed species and there are other examples of viral infections that have jumped from animals to humans, it was feared the same might be the case for dog flu. However, up to this point in time (2020) there is no conclusive evidence that this has happened.

Currently, the disease is endemic to the United States of America (USA), where it was also first isolated in greyhound racing dogs. There have been outbreaks in Canada, and it is not known exactly how widespread it might be in Asia. In the UK, two individual cases were reported retrospectively, but appeared to be isolated with no further incidents.

The virus is highly contagious and predominantly associated with cluster situations, where dogs come into close contact with each other. It is, therefore, important to understand that canine influenza is not the same as kennel cough even though the signs are similar.

The symptoms are similar to those of most other respiratory infections. In a mild form, the dog develops a moderate fever, nasal discharge, sneezing, cough, listlessness, and possibly inappetence. The more severe form shows all the signs above, but the fever is higher and pneumonia (bacterial secondary infection) might develop with laboured breathing.

As with most viral infections, treatment is not curative but supportive. Those with the mild form will recover within about two weeks, although the cough can persist for longer. Due to the highly contagious nature, only dogs with severe symptoms and possible pneumonia are normally hospitalised. They might be given IV fluids and antibiotics to fight the secondary bacterial infection. Irrespective of the severity, all dogs with symptoms must be rested (those with pneumonia for up to two months).

Currently, vaccines are available in the USA and Canada but not used routinely, only in dogs that are considered at risk.

Kennel cough

(also known as Canine infectious tracheobronchitis)

This is an umbrella term for almost all diseases in dogs showing a persistent cough. The causes can be bacteria, viruses (e.g.: Canine parainfluenza virus, canine herpes virus), mycoplasma, parasites and fungi. In most cases an initial viral infection with resulting damage to the tissue in the respiratory tract paves the way for secondary infections.

Many cases are uncomplicated and mild, with moderate coughing and other signs. The severity depends largely on the age and general condition of the dog; puppies and those compromised by other health issues are most at risk, but most dogs will never develop any symptoms at all. At the other end of the spectrum, dogs can develop pneumonia with high temperature, listlessness, inappetence, prolonged coughing, and breathing difficulties.

Due to its contagious nature, normally only severe cases will be hospitalised. Because viral infections cannot be treated directly (antiviral drugs are either not available or usually ineffective), intervention is supportive, and medication will be aimed at the secondary infection. It might, therefore, include antibiotics, antifungal or other antimicrobial drugs, IV fluids, cough suppressants (not in pneumonia cases), and preparations to make breathing easier (bronchodilators). In all cases strict rest and isolation from other dogs is strongly advised.

Uncomplicated cases recover within about two weeks, but others can take a lot longer.

Keratitis

Keratitis is an inflammatory condition of the cornea, the clear, outermost frontal layer of the eye. There are many reasons for this disease and clinically there is a distinction between those that develop an ulcer and those that don’t. It may be the result of infection, trauma, physical irritation (e.g. entropion, ectropion, ingrowing eyelashes), chemical irritation, and auto-immune factors.

Symptoms include:

pink streaks
thickened third eyelids
cloudiness
white lesions
blinking
signs of pain
ulcers
discharge

In advanced stages it might lead to blindness. There is also a condition in which both the cornea and the conjunctiva are involved and that is caused by a lack of tear production, called Dry eye or Keratoconjunctivitis Sicca. If the veterinary surgeon suspects an ulcer, he/she will use a stain to make it visible.

Many cases will require life-long treatment although this will depend on the exact cause and may include anti-inflammatory preparations, possible surgery where there is physical underlying damage, surgical removal of the affected layer of the cornea, immune-suppressive drops, and antibacterial drops.

The greatest risk is the eventual penetration of the cornea through to deeper layers, but the disease generally carries a good prognosis.

Kidney disease

The kidneys are the main filter mechanism of the body, removing toxins, but also playing a part in blood pressure regulation and mineral balance. If they become affected by disease, these functions, especially that of detoxification, are reduced in effectivity and waste products start to build up.

Problems can develop very quickly as a result of ingesting poisons, as a side-effect of certain drugs, by an infection of the kidneys, but also backpressure when urine cannot drain away because of an obstruction and an acute drop in blood pressure, which reduces the blood flow to these organs.

On the other hand, we speak of chronic kidney failure, if it develops over time and this also means problems can become apparent only when they are quite advanced and serious. The causes for this are systemic infections elsewhere in the body, certain genetic conditions, but most importantly advanced dental disease. Teeth are very well supplied with blood so that bacteria can enter the bloodstream and quickly affect other organs, here the filtering function becomes part of the reason, because bacteria become stuck and accumulate.

Symptoms are varied and depend to a degree on the underlying cause. They include:

drinking a lot
urinating more
loss of appetite
general weakness and apathy
weight loss
vomiting
ulcerated mucous membranes (particularly in the mouth)
blood in urine

Treatment equally depends on the actual cause and it must be noted that the longer the disease has been present the more difficult it might be to identify the root. In severe cases it is advisable to hospitalise the dog as special measures, such as intravenous fluids, could be necessary, and it makes it easier to monitor initial progress. Medication will be directed at treating the underlying cause (i.e., antibiotics in case of infection, antidotes or other preparations in case of poisoning), stopping vomiting, regulating blood pressure and urinary production, and treating any other blood abnormalities.

A vital part of the recovery process is a special diet, which the animal might have to stay on for the rest of its life, if kidney function is permanently compromised. That does not mean they cannot live a full and happy life although, if left untreated, kidney disease is almost invariably fatal.

Lipoma

A lipoma is a harmless fatty lump that appears under the skin. Even fat cells can develop into runaway growths (neoplasia), and they are quite common in dogs. Thankfully, they are benign and will not spread to other parts of the body. Most of them will appear under the skin around the rump but they can grow almost anywhere, even internally and between muscles.

As they are benign, normally nothing needs to be done about them. Should they become troublesome, e.g. if the dog catches it or it begins to impede motion, surgery is successful and will cure it. They are well encapsulated, which makes their excision fairly easy in most cases. Often dogs have more than one around the body, but surgical intervention should only be considered if they turn into a clinical problem.

There is no medication against lipomas and drugs won’t be necessary unless for a post-operative reason.

Liver disease

The liver has a multitude of very important functions. It acts as a central part of the digestive tract but is also a building block of the detoxification system in the body. It filters the blood which comes from the digestive tract. It also produces bile, which facilitates fat digestion together with other substances which help with blood clotting, and it is a storage bile compartment for iron and glucose, with which it plays a role in energy release, blood sugar regulation, and the entire blood supply. In terms of its clearing function it removes medicines amongst other things. The waste products it creates, such as bilirubin, hormones and cholesterol are then eliminated via the kidneys, with which it is functionally connected.

Obviously, if the liver is compromised the consequences are varied and can be dire. Apart from those listed below, there is evidence that in some cases there is an immune-mediated link. Causes of liver dysfunction in dogs include:

drugs
- Long-term medication
- Overuse
alcohol
- Very rare but not entirely unknown in dogs
infection
poisoning
- Some plant toxins
- Chemicals
- Pesticides
- Blue-green algae
- Some moulds
obesity
- Especially fat-rich diets
parasites
other diseases, such as
- Pancreatitis

Symptoms are equally wide-ranging. Initially, they can be unremarkable and regarded by the owner as the dog having an ‘off day’, especially since they are often unspecific and might relate to a host of other problems. They include:

lethargy
- might be intermittent
inappetence
weight loss
poor coat and skin condition
vomiting
diarrhoea
black faeces
drinking a lot
urinating more
a tendency to bleed
jaundice
fluid accumulation in the abdomen (= ascites)

Treatment will target primarily the underlying cause and be tailored to the specific combination of problems at hand. In severe acute and advanced cases, hospitalisation will most often be advisable for better stabilisation of the patient. Diet is very important, and the animal might be required to stay on a specialised food for the rest of their life. The prognosis depends on the degree of advancement and any damage to other body systems.

Mange

This is an umbrella term for an inflammatory skin condition caused by mites. The parasites come in two types, Demodex and Sarcoptes.

Demodex normally causes very little itching. The first signs are patches of hair loss, reddened and flaky skin. Should the infestation progress further, however, itching will increase together with hair loss, as well as the risk and incidence of further skin disease, such as bacterial infection.

Diagnosis is with the help of skin scrapings examined under a microscope. Treatment consists of antiparasitic washes and / or insecticide injections. If the skin is badly affected antibacterial shampoos or antibiotics will be added. In otherwise healthy dogs, small infestations can disappear spontaneously. Animals at heightened risk are those whose immune system is compromised, either because of existing immune problems or immune-suppressive medication. In those it might become a recurrent issue.

In contrast to Demodex, Sarcoptes is highly contagious, itchy and can transfer to humans. The pruritus is caused by the mites borrowing into the skin and causing far more irritation than Demodex. They then produce substances that elicit a strong immune response. Apart from itchiness, signs are papules and pustules, generalised hair loss, and crusts. Due to the discomfort, dogs tend to incur a lot of self-harm through biting and scratching, leading to sometimes severe, wide-spread bacterial infection. In serious cases it can lead to weight loss and generalised poor condition.

As before, diagnosis is by examination of skin scrapings. Unfortunately, only a few mites are necessary to cause the symptoms and it is, therefore, not certain the parasite will be detected visually. Nevertheless, if the signs are there, the best option is usually to start treatment. The core therapy is the use of special dips, where it is important to treat the entire dog, including face and ears. Other medication might be added depending on secondary problems. Sarcoptic mange is highly contagious, so all dogs which have been in contact with the affected animal, and its environment, must be treated. The itchiness can take a relatively long time to subside.

Osteomyelitis

Osteomyelitis is an infection of bone and surrounding tissue that is usually bacterial but can, in sporadic cases, be fungal or caused by other microorganisms. The most common route for these agents getting to the bone is when trauma or orthopaedic surgery opens the skin and muscles, allowing bacteria or other agents to reach it directly.

Other paths are through the bloodstream, if there is a pre-existing infection at another, distant site in the body, and the germs will become trapped in the fine blood vessels that go to and around the bones.

Sometimes an infection in the soft tissue (skin or muscles) can descend and cause an infection immediately adjacent to the source. Where there is a pre-existing wound, either traumatic or surgical, it is common for the problem to be overlooked and to have become chronic by the time it is diagnosed.

Symptoms are non-healing wounds, obvious infection, pain, lameness, swollen extremities, or hind-limb weakness when the spine is affected.

Surgical intervention is the primary way to tackle the condition. This facilitates the deep-cleaning of wounds and the removal of dead tissue. It gives the surgeon the opportunity to reset fractures if necessary, take samples for identification of the cause, and enact any other beneficial technique, such as bone graft. In rare, advanced cases it might be best to resect (for example, jaw) or amputate (limbs). In addition, there will be long-term antibiotic treatment and follow-up x-rays to assess the progress of any countermeasures.

Relapses can happen but the prognosis is generally good.

Pancreatitis

The pancreas is located in the abdomen and is part of the digestive system. It produces substances which help to break down food and make resulting nutrients available to the body. In addition, it has a central role in the regulation of blood sugar and therefore controlling energy.

Pancreatitis is an inflammatory and very serious condition. Its origins are not yet quite clear. Since it is connected to other parts of the gastro-intestinal tract, especially the liver and the stomach, the symptoms originate mainly from that section, but the cardio-vascular system might also be involved.

Apparent signs are loss of appetite, fever, vomiting, diarrhoea, arrythmia, depression, weight loss, pain in the abdomen (especially frontal part), and jaundice.

In the acute phase it is almost mandatory to hospitalise the dog, as they will need intensive care, including intravenous fluids. This phase can become extended, depending on the response to corrective treatment in the individual case. Medication can comprise drugs to stop vomiting and diarrhoea (if present), analgesics and antibiotics, depending on circumstances. It is important to understand that diet is the central aspect of any management of the disease. If hospitalised it might be advisable to feed artificially. Later, it will be necessary, perhaps for the rest of the dog’s life, to feed a specialised diet that is low in protein and fat.

In some cases it can be necessary to perform surgery in order to remove dead tissue or correct resulting obstructions in connection with the liver.

Parvo virus Infection

This is invariably a serious infection attacking mainly the gastro-intestinal tract, but eventually affecting other systems as well. The standard symptoms are lethargy, vomiting, diarrhoea, inappetence and abdominal pain. In protracted or simply more acute cases depression (even coma), bloody diarrhoea, rapid weight loss, high heart rate, jaundice, severe breathing difficulties and finally death, due to sepsis and multi-organ failure, can be seen.

Any puppy that is lethargic, not eating, showing clear signs of discomfort and suffering from profuse diarrhoea must be regarded as a potential Parvo virus case.

All but the mildest cases should be hospitalised, as they will need to be isolated and receive intensive care. Therapy starts with system stabilisation with the help of intravenous fluids and antibiotics, antiemetics (to stop vomiting), analgesics and anthelmintics (in case of any worm burden) might be added. Rapid and determined treatment increases the survival rate, but mortality can still be high.

The best course of action is prevention by inoculation. However, the vaccine takes time to build up protection, which is why newly vaccinated puppies still need to be kept away from other dogs for a while.

Thankfully rare, a complicating factor because of the high motility of the bowels is intussusception, when one part of the bowels pushes into another. This will make surgery necessary, but prognosis is guarded.

Periodontal Disease

See Gingivitis.

Pneumonia

This is an inflammation of the lungs as a response to

aspiration of a foreign body (including food) or stomach contents
bacterial, fungal or viral infection
parasites

as a result of an immune reaction

Aspiration

In aspiration pneumonia the signs are fast breathing, coughing, exercise intolerance, and possibly cyanosis due to a severe lack of oxygen. Depending on any associated cause, one might also notice vomiting and/or inappetence.

As the underlying cause needs to be established, (which might include abnormalities in the mouth and throat, e.g. paralysis, that make the incidence more likely), X-rays will almost inevitably be part of the diagnostic process.

If there is a foreign body/substance in the airways, it will be removed if possible, although any procedure will have to be weighed against any negative effects it might cause.

Cage rest will be indicated initially so not to exacerbate respiratory distress, but light exercise later can assist in inducing coughing, which helps to clear the airways. Oxygen might be given in severe distress, as well as IV fluids and exposure to saltwater mist. Medication will mainly consist of antibiotics and bronchodilators to ease breathing difficulties.

Bacteria and viruses

Bacterial pneumonia can be primary, i.e. the bacteria came first and caused the disease, or secondary, e.g. to aspiration of food, viral or fungal infection, long-term drug therapy (especially if immunosuppressive, diabetes, and many others). Symptoms include coughing, nasal discharge, inappetence, exercise intolerance, laboured breathing, weight loss, and rasping breathing. Apart from x-rays, where there is a strong suspicion of bacterial involvement, samples from the airways might be used to identify the exact causal agent, and blood samples will help to assess the overall situation and identify possible other primary causes. If the condition has progressed quite far, it is often better to hospitalise the patient for supportive care in addition to antibiotics. Restricted exercise will be advisable in all cases.

Fungi

Inhaled fungal spores (incl. yeasts) can settle in the warm and moist environment bronchi and lungs provide. Because fungi and yeast can spread throughout the body more systems than just the lungs can be affected. They can also elicit an immune response (please see below). The most common symptoms are discharge from eyes and/or nose, laboured breathing, coughing, exercise intolerance, weight loss, and inappetence.

Blindness, solid little nodules in the skin (often missed until a discharge appears), lameness, or osteomyelitis are less frequently seen.

If the immune system is compromised it can be easier for spores to settle, mostly as a result of corticosteroid or other immune-suppressive therapy.

Diagnostic tools are x-rays, blood chemistry, urine tests, smear tests (exudate from nodules), and biopsy/histology.

Once a fungal infection has been established as the root cause, the drugs of choice are strong antifungal preparations that will have to be given for months. However, not all dogs respond well to treatment and so the prognosis might be guarded.

Severe and difficult cases might require hospitalisation, particularly since they often also benefit from supportive measures, such as IV fluids. Follow-up care will include repeat x-rays and blood tests, both as an indicator of the state of the infection and the other organ systems affected, but also because of the potency of the drugs and the long-term nature of the treatment, which can in itself have a negative effect on the body.

Immune response

Inhaled irritants (e.g. gases, fungi, pollen) or parasites may act as triggers in immune-mediated pneumonia, but the primary reason for the onset of the disease will often remain unknown beyond the fact the antigens accumulate in the lungs and the bronchi, causing the inflammation. The symptoms are very similar to the other forms, especially bacterial pneumonia. As before, a diagnosis will be aided by x-rays, sampling of tracheal and lung contents, culture, blood tests and possibly even allergen testing. Hospitalisation is often indicated, because of the multitude of effects, which require supportive care and monitoring. Should a cause have been identified, such as parasites, this will have to be dealt with first. Otherwise, corticosteroids are usually the drug of choice to reduce inflammation. In case of allergic reactions with a known cause, hypo- or desensitisation can be attempted.

Polyarthritis

This describes a simultaneous inflammatory condition of multiple joints, due to a response from the dog’s immune system and almost any joint can be affected.

There are two possible scenarios:

a. an often chronic, inflammatory and perhaps infectious process going on elsewhere in the body to which the immune system reacts. Some of the substances produced by the immune system to fight the condition might then end up in joints and, as a secondary result, cause inflammation there.

b. perhaps the more common form is an autoimmune disease where the immune system attacks its own body without any identifiable initial trigger.

Outwardly, the onset is often sudden. Symptoms include stiff gait, lameness (up to non-weight-bearing), pain, swollen joints, swollen lymph glands, exercise intolerance and, especially if there is another underlying disease, can include additionally, vomiting, inappetence, listlessness or fever.

Should there be an inflammatory and/or infectious condition elsewhere, therapy will concentrate on that primarily, for example with antibiotics. However, unless contraindicated, the drugs of choice are corticosteroids to suppress the immune response and reduce the inflammation. This will have to be continued for a number of weeks and relapses, even years later, are always possible. Should progress be unsatisfactory, chemotherapy, as an alternative, has been used with good effect.

A breed predilection exists at the extreme ends of the canine spectrum. Either very large dogs (e.g. Great Dane, German Shepherd, Weimaraner) or toy breeds are over-represented.

Pyoderma

Pyoderma describes a bacterial infection of the skin. One distinguishes between a ‘superficial’ form, when the upper layers are affected, and a ‘deep’ form when it reaches the medium and lower layer. It is always secondary to other detrimental processes and is particularly found in breeds with a short coat but excessive skin folds.

The skin needs to be broken in one way or another for bacteria to take hold. The main causes are softening due to sweat and insufficient ventilation, scratching and biting (e.g. parasites), skin being broken by other influences, or the immune protection has been lowered (e.g. immune-suppressive medication).

It is not necessarily by itself itchy but the underlying cause might be. If it is due to immune-suppressive drugs, they can eliminate pruritus. Physical signs are crusts, red areas or spots, papules, pustules, hair loss, scaly skin, and cellulitis. A fungal infection might sit on top of the bacterial one.

Severe, deep pyoderma might demand hospitalisation for daily baths, antibacterial washes, and injected antibiotics. The vast majority are outpatient cases with much the same treatment schedule and medication (but oral antibiotics). Depending on the individual findings it might be warranted to investigate for food or other allergies as the underlying cause.

Pyometra

This is the bacterial infection of the uterus (womb) and a follow-on disease from an inflammation of the inner lining. It is always to be seen as a very serious and potentially life-threatening condition, as there is a rampant infection in a closed cavity deep inside the body. Apart from a purulent discharge from the vulva, the signs are those of being generally unwell and later sepsis. Symptoms include lethargy, inappetence, drinking a lot, urinating more than usual, vomiting and an increasingly bloated looking abdomen. Unfortunately, many dogs will not show any clear overt signs until the infection has progressed to an advanced stage and this greatly increases the severity and the risk in this condition.

In valuable breeding females, owners are often reluctant to allow surgery, because it involves a complete ovariohysterectomy. However, medical treatment alone is only even remotely indicated if the cervix is still open and the discharge can drain. This rarely cures the problem and will have to be followed by a strict hormone treatment regimen for life afterwards.

Otherwise antibiotics will be given for a while after the operation, but recovery rates are very good.

Raisin toxicity

Please see Grape toxicity.

Ringworm

This is a misnomer, as it is nothing to do with worms but a fungal infection or dermatophytosis. Dermaphytes are pathogenic fungi that grow on skin, mucous membranes, hair, nails and other body surfaces, causing ringworm and related diseases.

A weakened immune system, either because of disease or immunosuppressive medication. will increase the risk of dermaphytes affecting the dog but, in otherwise healthy dogs, carrying the agent does not mean the dog will develop symptoms.

The classic sign is a circular hair loss with reddened edges but in dogs that is not necessarily so clearly defined. In addition, findings include scaly debris and itchiness.

Treatment consists of either oral or topical antifungal preparations. Due to its contagious nature, long-haired dogs should be clipped to reduce shedding the fungus along with discarded hair. The environment of the animal must also be considered and, if practically possible, disinfected. Diluted bleach has proven effective but, as recommendations about concentration vary, it is best to ask the treating veterinary surgeon for advice.

Other animals in contact with an affected dog (not just dogs), will have to be included in any eradication approach although treatments vary from species to species. Except where the reason for immunosuppression is known, it should also be investigated to determine what allowed the agent to develop into an infection.

Especially, in long-haired dogs and cats the problem might be quite persistent. Although, except in severe cases, the condition may clear up spontaneously, that will take months and so treatment and disinfection to hasten the process and reduce environmental contamination should always be considered.

Roundworms

(ascarids or nematodes)

While dogs can become infected at any age, roundworms are of particular concern in relation to pregnant or nursing bitches and puppies. Toxocara canis can infect unborn pups in the womb through the placenta from an affected mother and through the milk. Together with other species they can also be picked up from the environment, including eggs on contaminated surfaces or by eating other mammals which were carrying dormant developmental stages. An infection/re-infection cycle results when bitches ingest immature forms in their young’s faeces or vomited content. The Toxocara larvae can migrate to the lungs. In North America a species connected to the raccoon can infect dogs.

Symptoms are pot-bellied pups, weakness, loss of condition due to reduced utilisation of nutrients, reduced appetite, and possibly coughing (if larvae have reached the lungs).

The standard diagnostic test is examination of faeces for eggs. After treatment it is advisable to perform follow-up tests to ascertain the success of the medication.

Usually, cases can be handled as outpatients and simply treated with appropriate wormers. In highly acute or protracted cases it might be necessary to hospitalise weakened dogs for supportive measures, such as IV fluids.

There is a risk of frail, unviable pups after infection in the womb, and rupture of the bowels if the worms cause a blockage and have invaded the intestines in large numbers.

Please note that Toxocara can infect humans and cause a zoonosis called Toxocariasis.

This highlights the importance of a strict worming regime to prevent infection in the first place.

See also Hookworms, Tapeworms, and Whipworms.

Salmonellosis

Salmonella is a bacterium that lives in many dogs without ever causing any symptoms. It is particularly noteworthy because humans can catch it (see Zoonoses). Young dogs and pregnant bitches are most frequently affected.

Clinically, infections with actual symptoms can range in severity from the very mild to the catastrophic and potentially fatal. During pregnancy it can cause abortion. Symptoms generally seen in increasing degrees of acuteness are diarrhoea (might be bloody), vomiting, fever, lethargy, abdominal pain, and inappetence. These symptoms lead to dehydration, weight loss, weakness, racing pulse, and accelerated breathing.

The major sources of the infection are a contaminated environment (e.g. kennels), scavenged meat (strays, on walks, while hunting, etc.), and contaminated dog food.

The main diagnostic tools are blood biochemistry and cultures from stool samples. Uncomplicated cases might be treated as outpatients with rehydrating fluids/fluid additives, a non-challenging diet, and often without antibiotics, as the infection will be self-limiting. Medium acute to severe cases will require hospitalisation due to the increasingly serious degree of dehydration and general weakness. Supportive care, apart from antibiotics, will include IV fluids to correct dehydration and redress blood imbalances. In severely debilitated animals, especially the very young and the very old, corticosteroids might also be given to counteract shock. Regardless of severity all patients must be isolated to reduce the risk of spreading.

Seizures

Seizures are caused by abnormal electric activity in the brain. They are called ‘focal’ if there is only one part of the brain affected, or ‘generalised’, if both hemispheres seize. Where the root of the problem is primarily in the brain (trauma, cancer, developmental abnormalities, inflammation, infection) and where the fits recurrent, this is categorised as epilepsy.

Some causes can be outside the brain and these include: too little blood sugar (diabetes, liver disease), kidney disease, and poisoning. In other cases, described as idiopathic epilepsy, it will never be possible to identify the cause.

In the initial stage the dog will be confused, frightened, and will either want the owner’s attention/company or shun it. If it is a focal seizure the animal will stay conscious and the main sign will principally be localised muscle twitching, unusual limb movements, disorientation, etc. This might help to isolate the area of the seizure however most fits are or will become generalised over time. The dog may be on their side, largely because these incidents occur most often when they are asleep. There might be a short initial stage in which the dog is briefly conscious, but disorientated, beginning to breath heavily, and/or agitated. This will quickly turn into unconsciousness, jerking movements in the limbs, frequently with involuntary urination and/or defaecation, and salivation. Coming out of the seizure the dog will show again signs of disorientation, agitation, confusion, and possibly blindness.

During a seizure it is important to stay composed and, above all, concentrate on making sure the animal cannot harm itself, for example by placing cushions between it and furniture. Even in the initial and the final phases it is best not to touch the animal but simply to talk to it calmly and allow it to recover as fully as possible. Due to the psychological consequences and compromised awareness, there is a risk that the dog may bite if touched.

It will help your vet’s diagnosis if you can time the seizures and note down as many details as you can identify, even those that seem unrelated or unimportant. If it happens for the first time, it is rarely an acute crisis, but veterinary attention should be sought as soon as possible.

The main initial investigation will be a physical examination (including neurological tests) and blood chemistry to exclude or isolate any causes outside the brain, such as kidney and liver abnormalities. X-rays, ultrasound or other imaging methods might be used to look for neoplasia and other defects.

If no other primary cause can be found, and the origin is within the brain or unidentifiable, epilepsy can usually be treated with medication, such as diazepam and/or phenobarbitone.

Spondylosis

This is a degenerative disease of the spine, mostly affecting older dogs of larger breeds. The vertebrae, the individual bone compartments of the spine, are under a lot of pressure because the spine has to cope with tremendous stresses throughout the life of a dog.

Like arthritis, it is usually secondary to other problems, almost exclusively to deterioration of the spinal joints and especially the discs. That results in abnormal movements or positions and increased pressure on individual parts of the vertebrae. As a result, bone spurs grow on the side of the vertebrae. The common location is between the middle of the chest to the lower area where the spine joins the hips.

The condition may be symptomless for a long time and may be seen as a coincidental finding during examinations (x-rays) for other reasons.

Late signs include stiffness, exercise intolerance, pain, and restricted motion. Neurological symptoms (paresis, paralysis) due to trapped nerves between spurs happen only rarely.

Treatment commonly consists of non-steroidal or steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. If there are signs of stomach and/or bowel problems due to the constant intake of these medications, an antacid might be added to protect the digestive tract. Supportive measures include acupuncture, hydrotherapy (therapeutic swimming), massage, and physiotherapy. It is important that these should only be performed by trusted and experienced specialists but can, in some cases, lead to considerable reduction of the drugs needed to keep the dog comfortable.

Tapeworms

There are several different types of tapeworm that can infect dogs. Most of them will cause no or minimal symptoms and in the vast majority of cases only heavy infections will cause problems, such as weight loss.

The risk is that worms reach other organs outside the bowels and create dangerous cysts that are not always easy to remove. This can happen in dogs and humans. In dogs, the invasion of the abdominal cavity by Mesocestoides larvae can be fatal, although this has not yet been reported in humans.

Seeing a dog chewing its anal region or scooting along the floor may be the first and only signs apparent to the owner. The itching is caused by segments of the tapeworm that have broken off and are being excreted. These sections contain eggs and might be seen around a dog’s anus, under its tail or on fresh faeces.

One kind, Echinococcus, passes eggs that can then contaminate the environment or even the dog’s fur. Although all tapeworms can infest humans, this presents a direct pathway to people picking up the parasite.

Most tapeworms need intermediate hosts, such as rabbits, birds, rodents, but also sheep and fleas, among others. Inside them the parasite develops from eggs into transitional stages that are then picked up again by dogs and then develop to the adult form in the dogs’ small intestines. Infection happens through licking contaminated surfaces and soil, or by eating carriers (e.g. carrion when out on a walk).

Diagnosis in most cases is by examining stool samples and there are a number of very effective preparations available that will eliminate the parasite although treatment becomes more complicated when the worm has reached parts of the body outside the bowels.

Prevention can be achieved through targeted flea control (on the animal and the immediate environment, such as carpets, bedding, etc.) and making sure, as far as possible, that the dogs doesn’t eat potentially contaminated meat (carrion, hunted wild birds, infested raw food, etc.). In addition, a regular worming schedule is necessary.

See also Hookworms, Roundworms and Whipworms.

Ticks

Ticks are small parasites that stay on the outside of the skin but dig through it to suck blood. To enable them to do that, they inject and excrete various chemical compounds, including dangerous neurotoxins, that prevent blood clotting and alter the local immune response.

Under normal circumstances the blood loss is so small that it will not hurt the dog although massive infestations can lead to sever anaemia. Ticks also carry a number of infectious agents that can lead to a whole range of diseases, including heart conditions and joint infections, and their neurotoxin can cause paralysis and other central nervous signs.

Due to immune-suppression the host usually does not notice the tick so it can feed for several days undisturbed. They can be seen, especially when they have sucked blood and have become swollen, which makes regular checking of a dog’s skin advisable. It is not true that only dogs who are active in woodland or fields can contract them and, as the range of ticks seems to be widening, possibly through climate change, this makes widely inhabited areas equally potential areas of infestation.

There are several products on the market that can prevent ticks from attaching themselves to a dog. We used to believe that precaution was particularly advisable in the warmer months from spring to autumn however, in terms of seasonality, the risk of catching ticks has spread too and they are now active throughout the year in line with global environmental changes.

If a tick is discovered, it should be removed as quickly as possible. Care must be taken not to squeeze blood back into the skin of the dog or to break off the head, which then stays in the skin, as both can cause serious infectious problems. Pet suppliers and veterinary surgeries have various tools available to remove ticks safely and can advise on how to use them best. Many people keep a tick remover in the car as well as at home.

Whipworms

These worms live in the large intestine of dogs, where they attach themselves deeply into the wall of the bowels. In contrast to many other intestinal parasites, older dogs are often worse affected than young ones.

Infection occurs by ingesting eggs in the environment, where they can remain viable for many years.

If the worm burden is light, there are normally no signs. In more severe cases, the parasite can cause inflammation, blood loss, and diarrhoea that can progress to bloody diarrhoea, anaemia, dehydration, and weight loss.

Treatment consists predominantly of anthelmintics (anti parasitic drugs that expel parasitic worms without causing significant damage to the host) to eliminate the worms. More serious cases might require hospitalisation to receive supportive treatment for counteracting the symptoms mentioned above. As with other parasitic worms, prevention is paramount by introducing a strict, regular worming schedule throughout the year.

See also Hookworms, Roundworms, and Tapeworms.

Wobbler syndrome

Also known as cervical spondylomyelopathy (although there are a number of other terms in use), this is a spinal condition in the region of the neck. The name derives from the wobbly gait dogs suffering from it display. It affects mostly large and giant breeds. As the term suggests (a syndrome is simply a group of symptoms), there are various forms based on different causes however, what they have in common are changes that create pressure on the spinal column and compromised nerve function below that point.

The two main types occur at different ages. The first variety affects mainly giant breeds (e.g. Great Danes, Mastiffs, Irish Wolfhounds) below the age of three years. In their case it has a genetic cause, by which the interior of the spine is malformed so that the spinal cord is forced into a different shape than the normal round one. Nutritional contributory factors have been suggested but not yet fully proven.

The other main group comprises dogs of six years and older. Here the central factor is the degeneration of one or more discs that can then protrude and exert pressure on the spinal cord. Doberman pinschers seem to be overrepresented among other breeds.

Many of the symptoms are common to all cases. These include neck pain, exaggerated pain sensitivity (hyperaesthesia), weakness in the limbs, unstable gait, abnormally worn toenails, and abrasions on the paws. It is predominantly a slowly progressive condition, but sudden deterioration might be seen.

Apart from a thorough physical examination, the major diagnostic tools are x-rays and other advanced imaging, such as MRI scans, CT scans, and myelography. All cases will need restricted and strictly controlled exercise for months. Surgery to correct a fault in the spine is possible but medication might be elected depending on the findings of any investigation. The drugs of choice are corticosteroid preparations. Afterwards supportive care, especially physiotherapy and/or water therapy, is advisable in most cases.

Although the aim of treatment is more a matter of improvement than complete cure, the prognosis is reasonable and, especially with surgery, the majority will show signs of positive progress.

Although nutritional factors have been suspected but not yet conclusively identified, high protein and high calcium diets should be avoided. In addition, weight has to be monitored to avoid or reduce obesity. To help prevent the occurrence/recurrence it is best to use a body harness instead of a neck collar, and excessive jumping and running should be avoided in these breeds.

Help support our life-changing work...

Imagine if everyday tasks were so challenging or physically demanding they affected your quality of life. For many people living with a disability of families with a child with autism, that is their reality. Now imagine if a specially trained four-legged friend could restore your, or your family’s, independence.

The demand for our services is high and we can’t help as many people as we would like to without more funding. Please help us continue making life-changing differences for people with disabilities through the power of expertly trained dogs.

Every contribution, whatever size, is important and helps us make a difference.

Support us by Sponsor a puppy Donate now

Cookie	Duration	Description
cookielawinfo-checkbox-analytics	11 months	This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Analytics".
cookielawinfo-checkbox-functional	11 months	The cookie is set by GDPR cookie consent to record the user consent for the cookies in the category "Functional".
cookielawinfo-checkbox-necessary	11 months	This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. The cookies is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Necessary".
cookielawinfo-checkbox-others	11 months	This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Other.
cookielawinfo-checkbox-performance	11 months	This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Performance".
viewed_cookie_policy	11 months	The cookie is set by the GDPR Cookie Consent plugin and is used to store whether or not user has consented to the use of cookies. It does not store any personal data.